Aizer, Anna, and Doyle, Joseph J, Jr. Juvenile Incarceration & Adult Outcomes: Evidence

        from Randomly-Assigned Judges. Feb. 2011, www.law.yale.edu/system/files/area   

        /workshop/leo/document/J.Doyle.swingjudges_03032011.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct.

        2018.  

 

This source provides information on the disadvantages that former juvenile convicts face once being released from detention centers. The authors of this work conducted research and found that juvenile incarceration and recidivism are “positively correlated.”  This source provides possible reasons for this correlation, including the accumulation of criminal capital and criminal incentives.

 

Bonnie, et al. Reforming Juvenile Justice: A Developmental Approach. The National

        Academics of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2013, https://www.nap.edu/

        read/14685/chapter/10#231. Accessed 15 January, 2019.  

 

This source provides information about the differences in arrests by race and wealth. It attempts to explain why so many more juveniles who are incarcerated come from poor, minority backgrounds. This source argues that because more crime that takes place in predominantly poor, minority neighborhoods, there is a higher police presence in those areas. This situation results in criminal activity being more likely to be caught and more juveniles from those areas being arrested.

 

Bullington, Jonathan, and Sayre, Kathryn. “New Orleans juvenile jail plagued by violence,

        staffing woes.” New Orleans Metro Crime and Court News, 23 Aug. 2018, www.nola

        .com/crime/index.ssf/2018/08/youth_study_center_jail_new_or.html. Accessed 10

        Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides information on the issues regarding conditions in juvenile detention centers. Specifically, this source focuses on problems concerning staff, such as staff shortages and high turnover rates. This source also contains information on the results of a small number of staff relating to behavior issues and drug problems. This source argues for positive reinforcement for juvenile delinquents rather than punitive measures.  

 

Burney, Rebecca. “Personal Interview.” 2 Feb. 2019.

 

This source was an interview that provided information on juvenile criminals who are also victims of trafficking. She provides reasons why juveniles resort to trafficking. This source argues that there is a large problem with the foster care system that leads to trafficking and incarceration. Additionally, this source argues that more attention needs to be paid to female delinquents.

 

Christian, Steve. Children of Incarcerated Parents. National Conference of State Legislatures,

         Mar. 2009, https://www.ncsl.org/documents/cyf/childrenofincarceratedparents.pdf.

         Accessed 15 Jan. 2019.  

 

This source provides information about the backgrounds of juveniles who are incarcerated. It provides facts and statistics regarding juvenile race, wealth, and family situation. This source suggests that being disadvantaged in these three areas leads to emotional instability. This increases the likelihood of a juvenile committing a crime.

 

Chura, David. “What Happens to Juveniles Once They Leave Jail” Kids in the System, 8 Nov.

         2012, https://kidsinthesystem.wordpress.com/2012/11/08/what-happens-to-juveniles-on

         c e-they-leave-jail/. Accessed 24 Mar. 2019.

 

This source provides information from a former teacher of juvenile offender’s perspective. In the form of a blog, this source addresses what happens to juvenile offenders once they are released from prison. This source suggests a lack of success of juveniles once released from prison, sometimes resulting in death. However, this source notes the shortage of documentation on juveniles once they are released.

 

“Convention on the Rights of a Child” United Nations Human Rights, 20 Nov. 1989. https://w

         www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx. Accessed 1 Apr. 2019.

 

This source is the Convention on the Rights of a Child document. It provides a guideline for countries on standards for treating children and lists their rights. Examples of standards include minimum ages for child labor and minimum ages for minors to consent to sex. This source is in international law signed by all members of the United Nations except the United States.

 

Cruel and Unusual: Sentencing 13- and 14-Year-Old Children to Die in Prison. Equal

         Justice Initiative, Jan. 2008, www.eji.org/sites/default/files/cruel-and-unusual.pdf.

         Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides the harsh realities of juveniles convicted as adults. Providing true stories about mental and physical abuse of juveniles in adult prisons, from continual assault to branding, the source argues that thirteen- and fourteen-year-olds should not be put in prison for life without parole. It argues that sentencing younger juveniles to die in prison is a cruel and unusual punishment. This source describes the common types of people who are incarcerated and what those people need instead of incarceration          

 

Dizikes, Peter. “Study: Juvenile incarceration yields less schooling, more crime.” MIT News, 9

        June 2015, www.news.mit.edu/2015/juvenile-incarceration-less-schooling-more-crime-0

        6 10. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides information in juveniles offenders post-release. It argues that juveniles  face multiple disadvantages that lead to unemployment and recidivism. This source points out that social stigma plays a large role in ex-convicts attaining jobs. Dizikes describes the social alienation of former juvenile offenders as a “self-fulfilling prophecy.”

 

Geary, Patrick. “United States: Is Obama’s Win also a Victory for Children’s Rights?” Child

         Rights Information Network, 11 Jul. 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/201012080932

         40/http://www.crin.org/resources/infoDetail.asp?ID=18874&flag=news. Accessed 1 Apr. 2019.

 

This source provides information on the Conventions on the Rights of a Child. It explains where the United States stood once Obama was elected president. This source also provides a history of the United States’ view on the international law. Even if the United States did ratify the law, this source suggests it would most likely have little to no effect.

 

Goss, Scott. “Staffing Issues Impacting Delware Child Abuse Investigations, Juvenile

         Detention.” Delaware Online, 16 Feb. 2018, https://www.delawareonline.com/s

         tory/news/politics/2018/02/16/staffing-issues-impacting-delaware-child-abuse-inves

         tigations-juvenile-detention/342424002/. Accessed 2 Mar. 2019.

 

This source provides information on staff in juvenile detention centers. This source suggests that the issues with staff in juvenile detention centers are nationwide problems. These issues consist of poor morale and high fatigue. This source argues that finding people to work in juvenile detention centers is not the problem but rather getting them to stay.

 

Johns, Brandon. “Juvenile Justice: The American Justice System vs. Other Countries.” Medium

         10 Sept. 2018. https://medium.com/@bjohns81/juvenile-justice-the-american-justice-s

         ystem-vs-other-countries-3dc6860c77ad. Accessed 1 Apr. 2019.

 

This source provides information on the United States juvenile criminal justice system related to the rest of the world’s. It compares imprisonment conditions and incarceration rates in the United States to Norway. It shows that Norway’s juvenile criminal justice system is much more lenient than the United States’. This source acknowledges that Norway’s juvenile criminal justice system, though working well in Norway, may not work if it was implemented in the United States.

 

“Justice for Some: When There’s Only One Public Defender in Town.” New Orleans Metro  

         Crime and Court News, 15 Sept. 2016,  https://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2016

        . Accessed 15 /09/justice_for_some_when_theres_o.htmlJanuary, 2019.  

 

This source provides information on the struggles of a public defender. It highlights the busy schedule of Rhonda Covington, the only public defender in her district in Louisiana. It reveals that often “group pleas” take place, and defendants are often persuaded to plead guilty. This source argues that the current public defender system is flawed and unfair.

 

“Juveniles Tried as Adults.” Office of Juvenile and Delinquency Prevention, 2016, https://ww

         w.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/structure_process/qa04105.asp?qaDate=2016&text=no&maplin

         k=link1. Accessed 29 Jan. 2019.

 

This source provides information on the minimum age in which a juvenile can be tried as an adult. It contains a map with the minimum age for each state and says “not specified” if there is no minimum. This source shows that less than half of the states have a minimum age as of 2016. This source notes that in some cases, the minimum age only applies to murder charges.

 

Knapton, Sarah. “True Adulthood Doesn’t Begin until Age 25.” The Telegraph, 15 Feb. 2015,

         https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/11413884/True-adulthood-d

         Oesnt-begin-until-age-25.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2019.

 

This source provides information on juveniles reaching an age maturity. It argues that adulthood truly occurs around the age of twenty-five in the western world. This source provides factors that cause this delay in maturity. This source argues that that prefrontal cortex is not finished developing for most people by the age of eighteen.

 

Matsuda, Kristy N. The Impact of Incarceration of Youth Offenders. 27 Apr. 2009, www.

         ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/227403.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides information regarding the failures of our current juvenile criminal justice system. Matsuda argues that our understandings of child development and maturity are insufficient, and knowledge within these are necessary to effectively rehabilitate juvenile offenders. To support her argument, Matsuda presents data showing the decrease in minimum age to try juveniles in adult court and the increase in severity of juvenile punishments as well as the inconsistencies within the juvenile criminal justice system regarding maturity. This source also argues that “socially acceptable” institutions are the places where offenders are more likely to age out of crime and properly adapt to their surroundings.

 

McCausland, Phil. “Public Defenders Nationwide Say They’re Overworked and

         Underfunded.” NBC News, 11 Dec. 2011, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/pu

         Blic-defenders-nationwide-say-they-re-overworked-underfunded-n828111. Accessed

        15 January, 2019.  

 

This source provides information on the public defender system in the United States. It suggests that public defenders are overworked and cannot possibly defend their clients to the best of their abilities with such a heavy caseload. This source argues that the public defender system has a bad reputation for defending accused criminals, but says that the system is unfair to the poor defendants who cannot hire a lawyer. It describes the public defender system as an “assembly line” and a “sham.”

 

Mendel, Richard A. "Juvenile Detention Is an Ineffective Teen Sentencing Policy." Teens at

         Risk, edited by Stephen P. Thompson, Greenhaven Press, 2013. Opposing Viewpoints.

         Opposing Viewpoints in Context, www.link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/EJ3010167414/OVI

         C?u=va_p_wakef_s&sid=OVIC&xid=82cb43b4. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides information on methods of juvenile punishment in the United States. It argues that current methods are ineffective because they fail to rehabilitate offenders. This source argues that violence within prisons is detrimental to the offenders and only makes them more likely to reoffend. This source claims that juvenile incarceration does not reduce crime and is counterproductive.

 

---. No Place For Kids: The Case for Reducing Juvenile Incarceration. The

         Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2011, www.aecf.org/m/resourcedoc/aecf-NoPlaceForKids

         FullReport-2011.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides the background of juveniles who are convicted of crimes and end up in juvenile facilities. Often coming from poor, broken homes, the source provides support for the argument that juveniles who end up in detention facilities are the ones who need the most attention, care, and help to succeed. Instead, this source says, juveniles experience unsafe and abusive living environments. This source offers options for improvement not only within the detention centers, but also in places that, with improvement, could prevent juveniles from committing the crimes in the first place, such as the foster care system.

 

---. The Missouri Model: Reinventing the Practice of Rehabilitating Youthful Offenders. The

         Annie E. Casey Foundation www.aecf.org/m/resourcedoc/aecf-MissouriModelF           

         ullreport-2010.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source shows alternatives to the current juvenile imprisonment system, adopted by Missouri. It describes the current juvenile imprisonment system and the reasons it needs to be improves. In detail, this source explores the Missouri model and provides statistics to suggest why it is better than the current system. In detail, it explains how the Missouri meets the needs of juvenile delinquents and additionally reduced recidivism.

 

Moule, Richard Kenneth, Jr. Criminal Capital and the Transition to Adulthood. Arizona State

        University Repository, Dec. 2016, https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/176463/content/

        MouleJr_asu_0010E_16443.pdf. Accessed 24 Mar. 2019.

 

This source provides information on the effects of imprisonment of juveniles. It focuses on the negative social impacts that imprisonment has, highlighting the cold and brittle hypothesis. This source argues that imprisonment can lead to future offending behaviors. Furthermore, this source suggests that shared delinquency can create criminal organizations.

 

Palin, Megan. “Australia’s Youth Detention Facilities under the Spotlight.” News.com.au, 30 Jul.

        2018.  https://www.news.com.au/national/courts-law/australias-youth-detention-facilitie

        s-under-the-spotlight/news-story/2f1decd3f3b94955a147daaa0b2f88d2. Accessed 1 Apr.

        2019.

 

This source provides information on Australia’s juvenile criminal justice system. It describes the conditions of juvenile detention centers in Australia. Specifically, it shares a situation in which video footage was released of an indigenous boy being restrained by shackles in a chair. This source also shares the reactions of several human rights organizations and the Royal Commission.

 

Polsdorfer J. Ricker and Wells, Ken R., M.D., Encyclopedia of Children’s Health, 2019,

        http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Puberty.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2019.

 

This source provides information on the definition of adulthood. It provides a biological definition of adult and the biological signs of an adult. This source shows that the age during which children fully mature is different between males and females as well as different within the sexes themselves.

 

"Profile: New Report Says Criminal Justice System Often Emphasizes Punishment Over

        Rehabilitation in Cases of Juvenile Offenders." Morning Edition, 14 Feb. 2001.

        Opposing Viewpoints in Context, www.link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A166069709/OV

        IC?u=va_p_wakef_s&sid=OVIC&xid=c8ddbbeb. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides the opinion of people who are in favor of the current system for which juvenile are incarcerated as well as those who believe the current system needs improvement. The article focuses on the idea that punishments for crime have grown harsher over the past years. We have this growth to thank for the decreased crime rate, according to the opposing opinion. The view of the people in favor of changing the current system uses the argument that there is no evidence of there being a positive effect from harsher punishment. This source also debates the topic on whether or not children should be able to be treated as adults in the juvenile criminal justice system.

 

Ross, Richard. “Juvenile in Justice.” Richard Ross, http://richardross.net/juvenile-in-justice.

        Accessed 11 February 2019.

 

This source provides information on juveniles’ experiences in detention centers. It  contains personal stories written by juveniles who are currently or were at one point incarcerated. Additionally, this source has stories from current adults who were incarcerated for life as juveniles. This source shows the life situation they were in before they were arrested and the conditions they have experienced in prison.

 

Sawyer, Wendy. “Youth Confinement: The Whole Pie.” Prison Policy Initiative, 27

         Feb. 2018. www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/youth2018.html. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides statistics concerning juvenile imprisonment. In this source, Sawyer uses numbers to suggest that wealth and race influence whether or not a juvenile is incarcerated and for how long he may be incarcerated. This source describes the poor conditions within juvenile detention centers. The effects of the poor conditions within prisons are also briefly mentioned in this source.

 

Schiraldi, Vincent. “What Mass Incarceration Looks Like for Juveniles.” New York Times, 10

         Nov. 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/11/11/opinion/what-mass-incarceration-looks

        -like-for-juveniles.html. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides information on prison conditions from the perspective of the person newly running the corrections department. It describes the declining mentalities of the staff, mainly from being overworked. This source gives specific examples of juveniles’ behaviors becoming morally worse than when they were admitted. This source notes that this detention center is not the exception but rather the norm, giving examples of other detention centers having similar issues.

 

Shakur, Prince. “Youth Incarceration in the United States, Explained.” Teen Vogue,

         31 Oct. 2017, www.teenvogue.com/story/youth-incarceration-in-the-united-states-

         explained. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.

 

This source provides the history of juvenile incarceration in the United States. Shakur cites examples of when in history juveniles were incarcerated and for what reasons. Shakur uses the history of juvenile incarceration to explain why our current criminal justice system for juveniles is inefficient. A major part of this source stems from the fact that it is not clear when juveniles should be tried as adults.

 

Sharma, Rakeesh. “3 Reasons This “Perfect Prison Will Not Work in America. The Cheat

        Sheet, 22 May 2015,  https://www.cheatsheet.com/money-career/3-reasons-why-nor

        ways-prison- syst em-should-not-be-replicated-in-america.html/. Accessed 1 Apr. 2019.

 

This source provides information on the differences between the justice system in Norway and the United States. This source states that Norway’s system is much more lenient than the United States, and at first glance would seem to be the solution to the United States failing justice system. However, it argues that Norway’s system would not work in the United States due to fundamental societal differences.

 

Snyder, Grant. “Personal Interview.” 2 Feb. 2019.

 

This source is a personal interview that provides information on juveniles who are homeless. He argues that many of the crimes that offenders in the homeless community commit are survival crimes. He also says that juveniles who are homeless are more likely to be coerced. He argues that the public needs to view these people as victims trying to survive rather than hardcore criminals.

 

“Thirteen States Have No Minimum Age for Adult Prosecution of Children.” Equal Justice

       Initiative, 19 Sept. 2016, https://eji.org/news/13-states-lack-minimum-age-for-trying-k

       ids-as-adults. Accessed 29 Jan. 2019.

 

This source provides information on trying juveniles as adults. It argues that trying juveniles as adults is “cruel, unusual, and excessive.” This source gives specific examples in which juveniles placed in adult facilities were abused. This source argues that the adult prosecution of juveniles is an “outdated” and “detrimental” practice.

 

Van der Put, Claudia E., and de Ruiter, Corine. “Child Maltreatment Victimization

        by Type in Relation to Criminal Recidivism in Juvenile Offenders.” BMC Psychiatry, 5

        Feb. 2016, www.doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0731-y. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018.  

 

This source provides information regarding the current prison conditions and effects from the prison conditions. It is a scientific paper that tests whether the sex or history of maltreatment of juveniles affects the recidivism rate of juveniles. Van der Put found that abuse within prisons affects both males and females, but more so for males. Van der Put says that this research shows what needs to be the focus in reforming the juvenile criminal justice system.

 

Volokh, Eugene. “Statutory Rape Laws and Ages of Consent in the U.S.” The Washington

        Post, 1 May, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/201

        5/05/01/statutory-rape-laws-in-the-u-s/?utm_term=.c108dfe05096. Accessed 29 Jan.

        2019.

 

This source provides information on statutory rape laws. It provides the minimum age of consent, which varies from state to state. It is sixteen for over half of the states. This source points out common misconceptions of statutory offenses.

 

Wihbey, John. “Juvenile incarceration and its impact on high school graduation rates and

        adult jail time.” Journalist’s Resource, 4 Feb. 2015, www.journalistsresource.org/stu   

        dies/government/criminal-justice/juvenile-incarceration-long-term-consequences.

        Accessed 10 Oct. 2018

 

 This source provides information of the effects of incarceration on juveniles. It provides statistics regarding the likelihood of a juvenile ex-convict returning to school. This source suggests that imprisonment has a negative effect on juveniles’ educations. This source supports the idea of resources and support for juveniles once they are released from detention centers.  

 

Woolf, William. “Personal Interview.” 2 Feb. 2019.

 

This source is an interview that provides information on juveniles who are involved in gangs. He says that there is no fine line between an offender and a victim. He argues that juveniles who are influenced to commit crimes should be treated as victims. He provides the example of gangs using juveniles to do the criminal work and take blame for the crimes.

 

Witmer, Denise. “Abortion Laws for Teens by State.” Very Well Health, 4 March, 2018,

        https://www.verywellhealth.com/abortion-laws-for-teens-by-state-2611267. Accessed

        29 Jan. 2019.

 

This source provides information on abortion for teens. This source states whether or not there needs to be parental consent, if parents simply need to be notified, or if consent is needed by both parents. This source lists the requirements for teens obtaining an abortion state by state. It shows that abortion laws for teens greatly vary from state to state.

 

“Young Adult Coverage.” U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, 31 Jan. 2017,

        https://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/about-the-aca/young-adult-coverage/index.html.

        Accessed  29 Jan. 2019.

 

This source provides information on health insurance. It states that children can stay on their parent’s life insurance plan until they are twenty-six. This source provides the many circumstances in which a child can remain until the age of twenty-six.

 

Zurla, Christina. Re-Examining Juvenile Incarceration: High Cost, Poor Outcomes Spark Shift

        to Alternatives. The PEW Charitable Trusts, Apr. 2015, www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/assets

        /2015/04/reexamining_juvenile_incarceration.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct. 2018

 

This source provides reasons to avoid juvenile incarceration. It focuses on economic reasons as well as interests of the public. This source discusses the negative outputs of juvenile incarceration financially as well as general negative impacts. This source supports alternative punishments to juvenile detention centers and says the general public does as well.

 

Image Bibliography

 

Cover: https://medium.com/vantage/in-photos-the-connections-between-abu-ghraib-guantanamo

-and-juvenile-detention-in-america-1bde6fed9c5b